Income and wealth inequality in the U.S. remain near all-time highs. Analysts say this disparity is a “major issue of our time.” Experts have spotlighted deep policy failures fueling the problem and helpful economic fixes to alleviate the suffering.

Now researchers say our biases favoring the rich over the poor may take root earlier than was previously believed—perhaps when we are very young toddlers.

A new study led by a UC Berkeley psychologist suggests that biases towards those with more resources can be traced to beliefs formed as young as 14 months. However, researchers say a preference for richer people may not necessarily be driven by kids’ positive evaluations of them.

Instead, it might be caused by a negative assessment of those with less.

“Taken together, this suggests that somewhere early in this second year of life—12 to 15 months of age—we’re really seeing the development of these wealth-based biases come into play,” said Arianne Eason, a UC Berkeley assistant professor of psychology and the paper’s lead author. “And once they come in, they are relatively strong.”

The research findings were published this month in the Journal of Experimental Psychology: General.

Through a series of seven experiments, the team measured how toddlers demonstrated preferences for people with differing amounts of particular kinds of resources they desired—toys and snacks. Besides a bias toward the more “wealthy” person who had more resources, the children showed dislike and avoidance of those whom researchers labeled in the experiments as the “poorer” individuals.

Together, the results point to the deep-seated ways humans form ideas about what to value.

The research was partly inspired by Eason’s previous work with children. In graduate school, Eason worked in a lab that studied how infants and children thought resources were and should be distributed. That research consistently demonstrated that young toddlers and preschoolers generally preferred people who distributed resources equally. Wealth-based biases, in contrast, were thought at the time to emerge later in development, perhaps through direct conversations and socialization.

But Eason increasingly wondered less about how people distribute resources and more about how children understood the mere possession of them. To find answers, Eason and her collaborators focused on young children at an age when learning about the social world happens rapidly.

To begin, they needed to determine whether toddlers even retained information about who had more items that were a proxy for “wealth.” They introduced 35 children to two people in a room, both of whom had a clear bowl. One of the bowls was filled with things like toys or snacks; the other was almost empty.

Later, each person brought out a new bowl and left the room. This time, though, the bowls were opaque. While the participants couldn’t see how many items were in the bowls—or if there were any toys or snacks at all—they were significantly more likely to select the bowl belonging to the person who had previously had more. It was clear that the young toddlers could retain that information.

Next, researchers wanted to test what they did with the knowledge and how it factored into deciding who to help when grown-ups had a shortage of resources—in this case, blocks to build a tower. Toddlers were more likely to choose the person who earlier in the study had more resources. That indicated a longer-lasting preference for those individuals who were wealthier.

Over and over, the children showed that they tracked wealth, preferred to help those who were richer and were more likely to play with those who had more resources.

The rich kept coming out ahead.

“It’s very clear that toddlers can track well and have these behavioral preferences in favor of people who have more,” Eason said, adding that the effects were diminished for those younger than about 13 months of age.

The team then tracked the eye movements of the young toddlers as a video played on a screen. An adult on the screen doled out unequal amounts of resources—Legos and crackers, this time. Initially, the children’s gaze was barely different. But then they listened to either a positive recording that said of the adult in the video, “She’s a good girl, she did a good job,” or a negative one that said, “She’s a bad girl, she did a bad job.”

The ones who heard the positive message spent their time looking equally at the rich and the poor individuals. Meanwhile, those in the negative message group focused more of their attention on the poorer person.

“It’s not that toddlers had a preference for rich people,” Eason said. “They may have actually had a dispreference for poor people.”

Eason and her co-authors say their work shows that undoing wealth inequality will require a concentrated effort among adults to change the way young children think about and act toward poorer people. That must happen, they say, with the help of people and institutions in the kids’ lives who can help combat the negative attitudes that children begin noticing around the time they’re learning to walk.

“These are early-ingrained tendencies,” Eason said. “That means we have to work hard to undo them and put in a lot of concerted effort. But that doesn’t mean we should shy away from it.”

To be sure, part of the wealth-based bias could be linked to evolution, she said. Perhaps humans naturally gravitate toward those with resources that will help keep them alive.

But Eason said there’s more at play. Her research points to systemic ways we should begin thinking about inequality, and the origin of that wealth-based bias “starting point.” That’s the only way to combat the biases among many adults that benefit the wealthy and perpetuate policies against the poor.

“Just because wealth biases occur in the second year of life doesn’t mean that that has to be the way the world is,” Eason said. “We are highly flexible as people. We can build policies that go against some of our initial tendencies in order to create the outcomes we want to see.”

What’s the best way to wake a giant after a long nap? “Very carefully, and with a lot of planning,” said a grinning John Galambos. He was the project director for the Proton Power Upgrade project, or PPU, at Oak Ridge National Laboratory until his retirement in July after more than 40 years at the lab. “It was an A-team effort that will benefit science and technology development for decades to come.”

The “giant” Galambos referred to is the Spallation Neutron Source, or SNS, the nation’s leading source of pulsed neutron beams for research, which was recently restarted after nine months of upgrade work. The planned extended outage permitted installing and testing seven additional cryogenic modules and their 28 additional power units, as well as the supporting systems—all designed to increase the power capabilities of the 362-yard-long linear accelerator complex, or linac.

The beefed-up linac will initially provide the First Target Station at SNS up to about 40% more power than its original 1.4 megawatts, as much as 2.0 megawatts. More power will produce more neutrons and increase the pace of scientific discovery across a wide range of materials and technologies. To handle the increased power, the accumulator ring and target at the SNS complex were also upgraded with new electronics and supporting systems.

Eventually, the linac will also power the SNS’s Second Target Station, or STS, to produce the world’s brightest “cold” neutrons and enable studies of smaller and more complex materials.

Neutrons are widely used in research, such as in developing new vaccines, analyzing advanced batteries and operating national security systems. Neutron scattering at the SNS and ORNL’s High Flux Isotope Reactor, or HFIR, is an essential technique for advancing materials research to support the U.S. economy and offer solutions to challenges in energy, transportation, biotechnology, quantum and other research areas.

Overcoming obstacles

Despite the global pandemic, supply chain issues and other unprecedented challenges, the ORNL team still managed to complete the PPU project ahead of schedule and under budget.

“The PPU project exceeded all expectations in how it’s come together nearly three years ahead of schedule despite enormous technological, logistical and even global health challenges,” said Jens Dilling, associate laboratory director for the Neutron Science Directorate. “Thanks to the tremendous efforts of the ORNL staff and our collaborative partners at Jefferson Lab and Fermi National Laboratory, the SNS will continue to operate as the world’s foremost center for pulsed neutron research.”

The future looks brighter

The STS will produce the world’s highest peak brightness of neutrons, tailored for probing soft matter such as polymers and biological materials, and complex engineering materials. STS will house up to 24 new instrument stations—starting with eight—for unprecedented experiments on complex matter.

Mark Champion is the new PPU project director after serving as project manager since PPU’s inception in 2016. “We want to acknowledge and thank the project team for all of their hard work and dedication,” he said. “But we don’t plan to rest on our laurels. There’s more ‘gas in the tank,’ and we need to keep pushing the technology to enable even more and better science in the future.”

Jon Taylor, division director for ORNL’s Neutron Scattering Division, said, “I know our neutron scientists and the external researchers working at the SNS are already benefitting from the record 1.7 megawatts enabled by the PPU project in 2023. They’ve seen the improvements that added accelerator power does for their experiments, and they really want the full 2.0 megawatts we’re going to provide.”

Traveling 167,000 miles per second

The linac uses electromagnetic fields to steer and accelerate protons to around 90% of the speed of light, or about 167,000 miles per second. These protons pass through large steering magnets that guide them into an accumulator ring that is 271 yards in circumference.

There they are bunched together and directed 60 times per second at a target filled with 20 tons of liquid mercury. This is where the protons knock neutrons loose from the mercury atoms. Finally, these “free” neutrons are steered down beamlines to instruments where the scientists conduct their experiments.

The first one-third of the linac operates at room temperature, while the remainder uses 81 superconducting cavities inside cryomodules cooled with liquid helium to just two degrees above absolute zero (minus 460 degrees Fahrenheit).

A key aspect of the project involved building a curved tunnel extension leading from the existing accelerator toward the location of the planned Second Target Station. Workers added about 3,000 square feet of concrete tunnel, capped off by an 18-foot-thick wall of more than 7,000 concrete blocks to provide radiation shielding during normal SNS beamline operations. Other tunnel extension-related construction tasks included installing associated structures, roofing, geomembrane liner, tunnel waterproofing, electrical, fire alarm, ventilation systems and controls.

The long installation outage at SNS concluded in April 2024. An external accelerator readiness review was conducted the following month, and authorization for beam commissioning and routine operations to resume was granted in early June. Beam commissioning was then completed in less than 30 days.

“The post-PPU power ramp up plan calls for a gradual increase in beam power on target and annual neutron production hours up to 2.0 MW and 5,000 hours, respectively, in fiscal year 2027. However, now that our sleeping giant is already fully awake and working hard, it may be possible to increase the beam power earlier, which would benefit the science productivity at the facility,” said Champion.

The project is preparing a closeout report, lessons learned, and other documentation as required to support a U.S. Department of Energy project completion review in early 2025.